How to Develop Multi-Crew Cooperation Skills Through Line Oriented Scenarios

Effective multi-crew cooperation is the backbone of safe and efficient operations in aviation, maritime, healthcare, and other high-stakes environments. While technical proficiency is essential, the ability to communicate clearly, share decision-making, and coordinate actions under pressure often separates successful teams from those that struggle. Line Oriented Scenarios (LOS) have emerged as a powerful tool to deliberately practice and refine these interpersonal skills in a realistic yet controlled setting. Unlike traditional classroom learning or isolated procedural drills, LOS immerses crew members in dynamic situations that mirror real-world complexities, forcing them to apply teamwork principles in real time. This article explores how to design, implement, and maximize LOS training to build robust multi-crew cooperation skills, with practical strategies and evidence-based insights.

Understanding Line Oriented Scenarios

Line Oriented Scenarios are realistic, full-mission simulations that place an entire crew in operational situations demanding coordinated action. Originally developed in aviation as an extension of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training, LOS shifts the focus from individual task performance to team interaction. In these scenarios, participants assume their normal operational roles and must handle events such as system failures, weather diversions, medical emergencies, or communication breakdowns—all while managing workload, time pressure, and unexpected developments.

The core premise of LOS is that teamwork cannot be effectively taught through lectures alone; it must be practiced. By replicating the pressures and interdependencies of actual line operations, these scenarios create what training experts call "psychological fidelity"—the sense of authentic stakes that drives behavioral change. This approach aligns with modern adult learning theory, which emphasizes experiential learning and reflective practice. For a deeper dive into the theoretical foundations, the FAA’s Crew Resource Management resources provide an excellent starting point.

How LOS Differs from Other Simulation Training

It is important to distinguish LOS from simulator-based procedural training. While both use simulation, procedural training focuses on mastering specific maneuvers (e.g., engine failure checklists, emergency descent profiles). LOS, by contrast, emphasizes the human factors: communication, leadership, followership, situational awareness, and decision-making. In a typical LOS, the technical failures are merely catalysts for examining how the crew works together. This nuanced shift changes what facilitators look for and how debriefs are conducted.

The Role of Crew Resource Management in LOS

Multi-crew cooperation skills are often codified under the umbrella of Crew Resource Management (CRM). CRM encompasses the non-technical skills required for effective teamwork, including assertiveness, conflict resolution, workload distribution, and mutual monitoring. LOS serves as the practical laboratory where these CRM principles are exercised and refined. Without LOS, CRM training risks remaining abstract; without CRM, LOS risks devolving into technical drills with no focus on interaction quality.

A comprehensive LOS program directly maps each scenario to specific CRM competencies. For example, a scenario involving an ambiguous air traffic control instruction might target “communicating assertively while maintaining team harmony.” Another scenario, such as an unexpected system malfunction at a critical flight phase, might target “distribution of cognitive load and cross-checking.” By linking scenarios to defined competencies, trainers can ensure that every simulation has a clear learning objective beyond the technical outcome.

Designing Effective LOS for Skill Development

Creating LOS that genuinely develop cooperation skills requires deliberate design. The following principles should guide the development process.

Realism Without Overload

Scenarios must feel authentic to the crew’s operational environment. For an airline flight crew, this means accurate aircraft type behavior, realistic weather, and plausible radio communications. However, adding too many simultaneous failures can overwhelm learning. A well-designed LOS introduces challenges gradually, allowing the crew to demonstrate coordination before escalating pressure. This principle is supported by research on cognitive load in simulation-based training, as discussed in this article on medical simulation design.

Role Clarity and Responsibility

Each participant must have a clearly defined role with authentic responsibilities. In a three-pilot cockpit, the captain, first officer, and relief pilot should operate exactly as they would on the line. This includes using standard operating procedures (SOPs), callouts, and checklists. If roles are blurred or participants step outside their normal duties, the scenario loses its cooperative learning value. Moreover, role clarity enables observers and facilitators to pinpoint exactly where coordination broke down—whether it was a failure to speak up, a missed cross-check, or unclear task delegation.

Communication as a Core Skill

LOS must create opportunities for both effective and ineffective communication. Trainers should embed communication challenges such as noisy radio frequencies, language barriers (in multicultural crews), or ambiguous instructions. The goal is to help crews practice strategies like closed-loop communication (acknowledging receipt and confirming understanding), briefings, and the use of standardized phraseology. A common exercise is to introduce an error in a clearance and observe whether the crew catches it through cross-checking and assertive communication.

Decision-Making Under Pressure

Multi-crew decision-making is not simply the sum of individual decisions; it involves negotiation, consensus-building, and sometimes decisive command. LOS should include scenarios that force the crew to weigh multiple options with incomplete information and time constraints. For example, diverting to an alternate airport due to a medical emergency requires balancing fuel, weather, crew duty time, and passenger needs. The crew must communicate their reasoning, challenge assumptions, and commit to a course of action together.

Implementing a LOS Training Program

Moving from design to execution requires a structured approach. The following steps outline a repeatable process.

Step 1: Define Learning Objectives

Start by identifying the specific cooperation skills that need improvement. These could be based on incident reports, recurrent training observations, or organizational safety goals. For each LOS, write two to three clear behavioral objectives—e.g., “the crew will demonstrate effective task delegation during high workload” or “crew members will use advocacy-inquiry techniques to resolve a disagreement about the approach.”

Step 2: Develop Scenario Scripts

Write a detailed timeline of events, including triggers, expected crew actions, and possible diversions. Include both technical elements (e.g., system malfunctions, weather changes) and human factors elements (e.g., a fatigued crew member, a passenger disturbance). Ensure the scenario has a plausible beginning, middle, and end, with multiple decision points. Avoid linear “A leads to B” designs; instead, allow crew choices to influence subsequent events, creating a branching experience.

Step 3: Brief Participants Properly

Before the simulation, conduct a briefing that explains the training objectives, but does not reveal the specific events. Participants should know their roles, the simulation environment, and the rules for interaction (e.g., they may pause the scenario for clarification if needed). Emphasize that the goal is learning, not evaluation. This psychological safety is crucial for honest behavior and risk-taking during the scenario.

Step 4: Run the Simulation

Facilitators should monitor the scenario from a control room or observer station, taking notes on communication patterns, leadership behaviors, and decision-making processes. In some programs, a second facilitator may act as an “embedded” participant (e.g., a flight attendant or dispatcher) to inject information or test coordination across team boundaries. Keep the scenario running long enough to reach a resolution, but not so long that fatigue or boredom sets in.

Step 5: Conduct a Structured Debrief

The debrief is the most critical part of LOS training. Use a non-punitive, inquiry-based approach. Start by asking participants to describe what happened from their perspective. Then, guide the discussion toward the behavioral objectives using techniques like SHARP (Set objectives, Hear from participants, Analyze, Review, Plan). Encourage crew members to identify moments where cooperation was strong and where it could have been improved. A good debrief leaves participants with concrete action items for future line operations.

Measuring the Impact of LOS on Cooperation Skills

To ensure LOS training achieves its goals, organizations must measure outcomes. While subjective feedback is valuable, more objective metrics enhance credibility and continuous improvement.

Behavioral Observation Scales

Trainers can use validated rating tools such as the NOTECHS (Non-Technical Skills) scale, originally developed for European aviation. These scales break down cooperation into components like coordination, cooperation, leadership, and situational awareness, each with observable behavioral markers. By rating the crew before and after a series of LOS sessions, trainers can track improvement over time.

Crew Performance Metrics

Objective data such as task completion times, error rates, and communication frequency can also be analyzed. For instance, a crew that initially has long pauses during high-workload phases may show smoother coordination after LOS training. However, these metrics must be interpreted carefully—faster is not always better if coordination is sacrificed for speed.

Transfer to Operations

The ultimate test of LOS effectiveness is whether skills transfer to real line operations. This can be assessed through line checks, voluntary safety reports, and crew surveys. Some organizations use “post-training observation” where a supervisor or check airman notes use of CRM behaviors during normal operations. A positive correlation between LOS participation and improved line performance justifies continued investment.

Common Pitfalls in LOS Training

Organizations new to LOS may encounter obstacles. Recognizing these pitfalls can help in designing more robust programs.

  • Over-reliance on technical failures: Focusing too heavily on the malfunction rather than the crew interaction can turn LOS into a technical exercise. Always keep the spotlight on teamwork.
  • Insufficient facilitator training: LOS facilitators need specific skills in scenario design, observation, and debriefing. Without proper training, scenarios may become chaotic or debriefs may become confrontational.
  • Ignoring organizational culture: If the real-world culture punishes error or discourages speaking up, crew members will not behave authentically in LOS. Training must be supported by a just culture that values learning.
  • Scenario repetition without variation: Running the same scenario repeatedly can lead to rote responses. Regularly refresh scenarios or introduce new elements to keep the training challenging.

Future Directions: Enhancing LOS with Technology and Data

The evolution of simulation technology offers new ways to deepen LOS training. Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can create immersive environments without full-motion simulators, making LOS accessible to smaller organizations. Additionally, data-driven debriefing tools can record audio, video, and simulator data, allowing crews to replay key moments from multiple perspectives. This “objective replay” helps reduce bias in self-assessment. For an example of how data is transforming team training, refer to work by the NASA Team Training Lab, which studies team cognition in complex systems.

Artificial intelligence may soon play a role in generating dynamic scenarios that adapt to crew performance in real time. Instead of a fixed script, an AI-driven LOS could adjust level of difficulty based on crew competence, ensuring optimal challenge for skill growth. However, human facilitation will remain essential to create the psychological safety and nuanced feedback that machines cannot replicate.

Conclusion

Line Oriented Scenarios are far more than simulation exercises; they are a deliberate, structured method to cultivate the cooperation skills that determine team success in high-pressure environments. By designing scenarios that emphasize communication, role clarity, decision-making, and feedback, organizations can transform individual performers into cohesive, adaptive crews. The principles outlined here—from understanding CRM foundations to measuring outcomes—provide a roadmap for implementing LOS that truly develops multi-crew cooperation. When executed well, LOS not only improves safety and efficiency but also builds a culture of continuous learning and mutual respect among team members. As operational demands become increasingly complex, investing in LOS training is not just a regulatory checkbox but a strategic advantage.

For organizations looking to deepen their approach, additional guidance is available from the SKYbrary CRM portal and through professional development courses offered by the International Civil Aviation Organization. The journey from novice crew to a highly coordinated team begins with the first scenario—make it count.